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The effects of balance training on physical fitness and skill-related performance in basketball players: a systematic review

BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation volume 17, Article number: 108 (2025) Cite this article

Abstract

Background

Existing evidence suggests that balance training (BT) has a positive impact on physical fitness and sports performance. However, its specific effects on basketball players have not been extensively studied. Therefore, this systematic review aims to analyze the influence of BT on the physical fitness and skill-related performance of basketball players.

Method

A thorough search was conducted across four databases (Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, and EBSCOhost) for studies published until August 24, 2024, using keywords related to BT and basketball. The quality of the included studies was assessed using the “Qualsyst” tool.

Results

Thirteen studies involving 373 participants were included, focusing on BT interventions lasting a minimum of four weeks. These studies demonstrated that BT led to significant enhancements in balance, power, agility, stability, and basketball skill-related performance. Nevertheless, certain assessments such as the balance error scoring system, triple hop distance, 30-second maximal performance jump, single-leg triple hop, Y reactive agility, and maneuver running tests did not show significant improvements.

Conclusion

BT proves to be a valuable intervention for improving physical fitness and skill-related performance among basketball players. However, the variability in training methods highlights the need for further research to determine the optimal BT parameters, including training volume, intensity, and duration. Additionally, future studies should explore how factors such as gender, age, and playing level influence the effectiveness of BT in basketball players.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Basketball is a physically demanding sport that necessitates high levels of physical fitness, including strength, agility, coordination, and balance, all of which significantly impact players’ performance during competition [1, 2]. To enhance performance on the court, basketball players participate in various training programs focused on improving elements such as strength, speed, and endurance [3,4,5]. Among these, balance training has emerged as a crucial tool for improving stability and coordination vital for maintaining control during dynamic movements [6,7,8].

Balance and proprioception are fundamental components of athletic performance, particularly in sports requiring dynamic movements and rapid directional changes like basketball [9, 10]. Balance training (BT) involves exercises targeting an individual’s ability to maintain stability and control over their body’s position [8, 11]. It comprises activities challenging the body’s equilibrium, improving proprioception, and strengthening stabilizing muscles, especially those in the core and lower limbs [12, 13].

Proprioception, which refers to the body’s ability to sense movement and position, contributes to coordination, agility, and injury prevention [14]. It enables athletes to make rapid adjustments in response to external forces, improving neuromuscular coordination and postural stability [15]. The vestibular system, which helps regulate spatial orientation and balance, works alongside proprioception to maintain spatial orientation, stability, and movement control [16], which are crucial for athletic performance.

Proprioceptive training has been shown to enhance athletic abilities across multiple sports such as soccer, taekwondo, and fencing [9]. Research indicates that it can improve agility, reaction time, explosive strength, and skill execution, contributing to better dribbling, passing accuracy, joint stability, and postural control [9]. Given the similarities in movement demands, basketball players may also benefit from proprioceptive training, particularly in tasks requiring rapid directional changes, high-intensity movements, and precise motor control.

BT induces specific physiological adaptations critical for athletic performance, including improved neuromuscular coordination [17], reduced overactive proprioceptive feedback [18], and adaptations within the vestibular system [18]. These adaptations collectively enhance an athlete’s ability to perform rapid postural adjustments, maintain dynamic equilibrium, and efficiently execute sport-specific movements [9]. BT is particularly relevant for basketball players who face rapid changes of direction, sudden stops, and dynamic postures [19, 20]. By enhancing neuromuscular control, BT assists players in enhancing stability, lowering fall risks, and enhancing overall performance [17, 21]. Basketball movements such as jumping, landing, cutting, and pivoting necessitate a high level of balance for efficient and safe execution [22]. Incorporating BT into a basketball training regimen has been demonstrated to improve players’ movement control, enhancing performance in critical areas like shooting accuracy and defensive agility [23, 24].

While BT has been extensively researched in various sports like soccer [25, 26], volleyball [27, 28], and badminton [29, 30], where stability and control are essential, there are also several systematic reviews examining its impact on sports performance [8, 17, 31, 32]. For example, one systematic review explored BT for enhancing neuromuscular control and performance with healthy and physically active individuals, demonstrating its effectiveness in improving postural and neuromuscular control [17]. Gebel et al. (2018) found that BT is a beneficial training approach to enhance balance performance with moderate to significant effects on static and dynamic balance in healthy youth [31]. Brachman et al. (2017) reviewed 50 studies on BT involving young, healthy athletes aged 7–30 years, with participants ranging from elite competitors and national league players to amateurs and school-level athletes, and most studies indicated improvements in postural control [8]. Despite mounting evidence supporting balance training in enhancing athletic performance across various sports, there is still a lack of research specifically focusing on its effects on basketball players, who face challenges like jumping, cutting, and rapid changes of direction that demand exceptional balance. Considering the dynamic nature of basketball, where maintaining balance during intricate maneuvers is critical, this review aims to explore the effects of BT on physical fitness and skill-related performance in basketball.

Method

Protocol and registration

The study followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA 2020) guidelines [33]. It was registered on the Platform of Registered Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Protocols (INPLASY2024100029) on October 8th, 2024.

Eligibility criteria

Several inclusion criteria were applied according to the PICOS framework: (1) participants were basketball players; (2) the intervention was balance training (BT), lasting at least four weeks; (3) control groups underwent regular training without additional BT; (4) outcomes related to the effects of BT on physical fitness (e.g., power, speed, balance) and basketball performance (e.g., passing, shooting, dribbling); (5) randomized controlled trials (RCTs), non-randomized controlled trials (nRCTs), and non-randomized non-controlled trials (nRnCTs); (6) English articles with full text; The exclusion criteria were: (1) reviews; (2) studies lacking BT as an intervention; (3) unpublished studies.

Information sources and search strategy

The search was conducted on 24 August 2024. The Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, and SPORTDiscus databases were queried (Table 1). The search terms were: “balanc*” OR “neuromuscular” OR “propriocepti*” OR “sensorimotor” OR “kinaesthetic” OR “instability” OR “stability” OR “perturbation” OR “postural stability” OR “postural control” OR “postural sway” OR “wobble board” OR “balance board” OR “coordination” AND basketball. Additionally, the references of studies and Google Scholar were screened.

Table 1 Number of hits for the complete search strategy for the databases
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Data selection

Duplicates were identified using EndNote X20 software (Thomson Reuters) in New York City, NY, United States. Two authors (SC and JL) independently reviewed the titles, abstracts, and full texts based on the selection criteria. A third author (ZW) compiled and verified the results, and any discrepancies were resolved through discussions with another author (SKG). The inter-reviewer agreement was assessed using the Kappa statistic, calculated with SPSS software (IBM Corp. Released 2022. IBM SPSS Statistics for Macintosh, Version 29.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp) to determine inter-reviewer agreement [34].

Data collection

Data collection was independently performed by two authors (SC and JL), including: (1) population characteristics (e.g., age, height, body mass); (2) intervention details; (3) comparison; (4) intervention characteristics (e.g., length, frequency, duration, training protocol, intensity, time of season); (5) measurements; and (6) outcomes. A third author (SKG) validated the results to ensure accuracy.

Quality assessment

The 14-item “Qualsyst”, with specific criteria (yes = 2, partial = 1, no = 0), was used to assess the quality of the studies [35] (Table 2). The quality of each included study was independently evaluated by two authors (SC and ZW), and any discrepancies were discussed and resolved via consensus with a third author (SKG). This tool categorized the selected studies into strong quality (75% or higher), moderate quality (55–75%), and poor quality (less than 55%). Studies with poor quality assessment scores were excluded.

Table 2 Quality assessment through qualsyst
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Data synthesis

Meta-analyses were not feasible due to the lack of comparable outcome measures collected at consistent time points [36]. Specifically, the studies did not consistently report three or more baseline and follow-up measurements for the same variables. Moreover, there was insufficient homogeneity across the studies concerning the recruited players, interventions administered, and outcomes measured [37]. Consequently, the extracted data were analyzed following the guidelines of the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination [38].

Results

Study selection

A total of 7,313 studies were initially screened. After eliminating duplicates, 5,792 studies remained. Following title and abstract screening, 255 studies underwent a full-text review. These studies were then evaluated based on inclusion and exclusion criteria, resulting in 17 eligible studies. After the quality assessment, four studies were excluded, leaving 13 studies for the final analysis. The initial inter-reviewer agreement, as assessed by the Kappa statistic, was 0.817. Two discrepancies during the screening process were resolved through discussion with a third author. Subsequently, the Kappa statistic for the inter-reviewer agreement reached 1.00 during the full-text screening phase (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
figure 1

Systematic review search and screening procedure

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Study quality assessment

According to “Qualsyst”, seven of the included studies were of high quality, six studies had moderate quality, and four studies having poor quality were removed [39,40,41,42] (Table 2).

Participant characteristics

The population characteristics of the 13 studies were presented as follows (Table 3):

  1. (1)

    Sample size: In total, 373 participants were included across all studies, with sample sizes ranging from 30 [24, 43] to 326 [44] participants, and a mean sample size of 93.09 participants (SD = 80.).

  2. (2)

    Sex: Six studies focused on male basketball players [45,46,47,48,49,50], while four studies examined females [23, 24, 43, 51], and three studies included both males and females [44, 52, 53].

  3. (3)

    Level: Five studies looked into professional basketball players [43, 46, 48, 51, 53], four studies explored collegiate basketball students [23, 47, 49, 50], one study involved recreational basketball players [45], one study focused on both professional and recreational basketball players [24], and two studies did not specify the playing level of participants [44, 52].

Table 3 Data extraction from selected articles
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Intervention characteristics

The characteristics of the included studies were as follows:

  1. (1)

    Training program length: The duration of the training programs varied from 4 weeks [44, 53] to 12 weeks [45, 46], with a mean length of 7.5 weeks (SD = 2.5).

  2. (2)

    Training frequency: Eleven studies provided details on the intervention frequency, which ranged from 2 to 5 times per week. Two studies did not specify the frequency [44, 45].

  3. (3)

    Training duration: Ten studies specified the duration per training session, ranging from 5 min to 60 min. Three studies did not provide this information [44, 45, 47].

  4. (4)

    Training session: Four studies conducted the balance training during the in-season [47, 48, 50, 51], and one in the pre-season [46]. Other studies did not specify the training session.

Outcome characteristics

Effect of BT on balance

Eleven selected studies examined the impact of balance training (BT) on balance using assessment tools such as the Libra board test [46], balance error scoring system (BESS) [47, 53], star excursion balance test (SEBT) [44, 47], CoP measurements [51], multi-functional trainer (MFT) device test [43], Y balance test (YBT) [24, 48,49,50], postural stability test (PST) [50], stability platform-lafayette [52], and standing on a wooden surface test [52]. With the exception of two studies reporting unchanged results for BESS [53] and the stability platform-lafayette test [52], all balance performances significantly improved in the selected studies.

Effect of BT on power

Five studies investigated the effect of BT on power using assessment tools such as countermovement jump (CMJ) [46, 51], vertical jump (VJ) [43], triple hop distance test [47, 53], and 30-s maximal performance jump test [51]. The CMJ and VJ showed significant improvement after BT, whereas the triple hop distance test and 30-s maximal performance jump test did not show significant improvement.

Effect of BT on agility

Four studies investigated the effect of BT on agility using assessment tools such as the hexagon test [43], Y reactive agility test [53], mini zig zag drill test (MZZDT) [44], and maneuver running test [52]. The hexagon test and MZZDT significantly improved following BT, while the Y reactive agility test and maneuver running test did not exhibit significant improvement.

Effect of BT on stability

Only one study explored the effect of BT on stability using the closed kinetic chain upper extremity stability test, which showed significant improvement after BT [48].

Effect of BT on basketball performance

Six studies investigated the impact of BT on basketball performance, including passing tests [45, 48, 52], shooting tests [23, 43, 49, 52], dribbling tests [23, 52], defensive sliding test [52] and lay-up test [52]. All basketball performance metrics significantly improved after BT, except for one study reporting unchanged results for fast shooting, dribbling, defensive sliding, and lay-up tests [52].

Discussion

This systematic review aimed to investigate the effects of balance training (BT) on the physical fitness and skill-related performance of basketball players. The results suggest that BT can significantly improve balance, power, agility, stability, and basketball performance. However, some tests showed insignificant improvements, as discussed below.

Effect of BT on balance

Balance encompasses dynamic and static aspects. Both are crucial for basketball players. In this review, ten studies showed that BT has a significant positive impact on balancing ability. It exhibited in improving static balance in tests like the Libra board test, SEBT, CoP measurements, standing on a wooden surface test, and PST, and dynamic balance in tests like BESS, stability platform-lafayettes test, MFT device test, and YBT. These results corroborate a previous systematic review demonstrating BT’s effectiveness in enhancing static and dynamic balance in young athletes [54].

The enhancement can be attributed to various interventions used in the ten studies. Firstly, balance exercises require continuous adjustment of muscle activation patterns [55], improving coordination and muscle group recruitment. Utilizing unstable surfaces like BOSU balls or wobble boards challenges the neuromuscular system, aiding in stabilization against perturbations [56]. Training involving perturbation, such as slackline and trampoline exercises, enhances equilibrium maintenance during movement [57]. Additionally, exercises like the Libra board test, SEBT, and slackline training enhance proprioception, improving sensory feedback from joints, tendons, and muscles, thereby enhancing joint stability, crucial for balance [58, 59].

However, few studies have reported insignificant results in balance-related assessments. For instance, Lee et al. (2021) did not observe a significant improvement in BESS with BT. One possible factor could be the differences in participant characteristics, such as experience and training level, but current evidence remains inconclusive. Additionally, this study had a lower training volume (two sessions per week for 15 min over four weeks), which was shorter than most studies reporting significant improvements. More research is needed to compare training volume effects across different populations.

In addition, Zacharakis et al. (2020) reported that static balance significantly improved in young males but not in young females. However, few studies have directly compared balance training outcomes across genders in basketball players. More research is needed to explore potential differences between males and females in response to BT, particularly considering developmental, neuromuscular, and anthropometric factors [60].

Effect of BT on power

Power is crucial for vertical jump performance, crucial in basketball for activities like rebounding, blocking shots, and executing dunks [61]. Five studies reviewed revealed that BT significantly enhanced CMJ and VJ but had no impact on the triple hop distance test and 30-s maximal performance jump test. These results align with a previous systematic review that also highlighted conflicting findings regarding the impact of BT on jumping performance [17]. Balance exercises employed in the studies, such as Swiss ball training and slackline training, enhance neuromuscular efficiency by demanding precise control of muscle activation and synchronization across core and lower extremity muscle groups [62, 63]. This improved neuromuscular coordination can enhance the efficacy of motor unit recruitment during explosive movements like CMJ and VJ. Furthermore, in studies where BT programs incorporated dot and hexagon drills [43], these exercises contributed to balance enhancement by requiring continuous postural adjustments during rapid, repetitive movements. These drills challenge reactive strength and the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC), both of which are crucial for CMJ and VJ performance [64].

However, some studies did not show significant results in power. Specifically, Santos et al. (2016) implemented a BT program with a total training load of approximately 90 to 162 min over six weeks (5–9 min per session, three times per week). This study reported no significant improvement in the 30-second maximal performance jump test, an assessment that involves repeated high-intensity efforts and engages anaerobic energy systems along with muscular endurance demands [51]. Similarly, the power-centered task of the triple hop distance, requiring significant explosive force generation in the lower limbs, did not witness notable enhancements as Panwar & Narwal (2014) applied wobble board training as BT, focusing on stability and control rather than developing the muscular strength or explosive power crucial for significant propulsive forces [47]. Therefore, there is currently limited evidence comparing different BT training volumes and modalities in relation to power performance, highlighting the need for further research to determine optimal BT parameters for improving power in basketball players.

Effect of BT on agility

Agility is essential for excelling in basketball, influencing all facets of the game from offense to defense, transitions, and rebounding [65]. It empowers players to react quickly, execute movements precisely, and maintain control under pressure, making it a crucial factor in basketball performance. The conflicting results of BT on agility align with a previous review [17]. The hexagon test and MZZDT showed improvements in two incorporated studies. Neuromuscular coordination was enhanced by BT through ladder training and dot drills, enhancing the body’s capacity to perform rapid and controlled movements, crucial for agility assessments like the hexagon test [66].

The Y reactive agility test did not improve perhaps due to the high baseline level of the participants and the low training volume, as previously mentioned [53]. The maneuver running test did not show improvement potentially because the participants, at just 13 years old, were likely experiencing the adolescent growth spurt phase, characterized by rapid physical changes such as increased height and limb length [67]. These changes could temporarily affect coordination, balance, and movement efficiency, making it challenging to enhance agility or change of direction through training.

Effect of BT on stability

Stability enables players to sustain proper body alignment and control during activities like dribbling, shooting, and defending [68]. In the current review, only one included study explored the impact of BT on stability, showing improvement in the closed kinetic chain upper extremity stability test [48], which heavily relies on upper body strength and shoulder stability to sustain the push-up position while in dynamic motion. Prior reviews also endorse BT as a valuable approach for boosting stability for injury prevention and athletic performance [69]. Fisek & Agopyan (2021) employed BOSU balance disc exercises, delta balance ball exercises, and trampoline exercises in the balance regimen. The instability induced by these exercises challenges the core to enhance stabilization, and exercises on these unstable surfaces enhance the ability to manage rotational forces [70, 71], thereby reducing swaying during alternating hand taps in the assessment. Nonetheless, existing evidence is inadequate to provide conclusive insights into the impact of BT on stability. Further rigorously designed research is necessary to elucidate the relationship between BT and agility.

Effect of BT on basketball performance

The included studies utilized various tools and exercises targeting physical, neuromuscular, and sport-specific factors that collectively improved basketball shooting performance, which necessitates efficient force transfer from the lower body through the core to the upper body [72,73,74]. For example, exercises such as lunges and single-leg hops combined with shooting focus on core strength and balance during dynamic conditions [49], and Hamdan (2023) utilized tools like bosu balls and fit balls to augment stability and reduce unnecessary body sway during shooting. Enhancing core stability, dynamic balance, proprioception, neuromuscular coordination, and strength ensures better control, precision, and consistency in shooting mechanics, even under dynamic and unstable conditions [72, 75]. Each study incorporated elements of instability, dynamic movement, and sport-specific tasks, making the training highly transferable to basketball performance.

With regard to passing performance, BT strengthens the core and stabilizing muscles, enabling players to generate controlled power during passes and maintain proper posture and alignment when passing under dynamic or unstable conditions [76, 77]. Passing relies on stabilizing muscles in the shoulder and upper body to control the direction, speed, and power of the pass [78, 79]. BT strengthens these stabilizers by challenging them on unstable surfaces [80]. For instance, Fisek & Agopyan (2021) utilized balance discs and delta balls on unstable surfaces to challenge the core, enhancing stability during passing. Nikolaos et al. (2012) employed BOSU balls and TOGU balls to engage core muscles, improving the stability required for accurate and controlled passes.

Regarding dribbling performance, Hamdan (2023) demonstrated the positive effect of BT on various dribbling skills. Dribbling necessitates a strong and stable core to maintain control of the ball while maneuvering through defenders or obstacles [81]. Balance training on unstable surfaces (e.g., BOSU balls, cushion balls) strengthens the core muscles, improving trunk stability [80]. However, unstable surfaces (e.g., cylindrical plank, sponge mattress) challenge proprioception, compelling the athlete to continuously adjust and fine-tune body movements [80]. The enhanced proprioception enables players to better control their body while dribbling, enhancing precision and adaptability during zigzag or quick dribbling drills.

In summary, enhanced balance through BT directly contributes to improved basketball-specific motor skills. For instance, improved dynamic stability helps shooters maintain correct body posture during the jump-shot motion [82], reducing unnecessary sway and leading to increased shooting accuracy. Similarly, improved postural control enables athletes to pass accurately even under defensive pressure [83], enhancing passing precision. Furthermore, dribbling benefits from better body control and reduced instability [84], allowing players to execute rapid directional changes with greater effectiveness. The reactive and dynamic nature of basketball requires players to integrate sensory information rapidly to make effective game-time decisions [85]. BT enhances sensorimotor integration [86], allowing athletes to better adjust their posture during the game, facilitating quicker transitions between movements, such as rapidly changing directions or responding defensively to opponent actions. Future research could further examine how BT specifically influences decision-making and anticipatory control under game-like conditions to optimize training prescriptions.

Nevertheless, Zacharakis et al. (2020) reported that BT did not significantly enhance dribbling, defensive sliding, and lay-up tests in the experimental male group and fast shooting and dribbling tests in the experimental female group. However, few studies have directly examined gender differences in BT effectiveness for basketball performance, making it difficult to draw definitive conclusions. While anthropometric and neuromuscular factors may contribute to variations in training outcomes, current evidence remains inconclusive. Future studies should investigate how sex, age, and skill level influence BT adaptations in basketball players to better understand these inconsistencies.

Limitations

Several limitations need to be acknowledged in this review. Firstly, some studies lacked detailed information on the frequency, duration, or seasonal timing of the BT programs, impacting the ability to draw consistent conclusions about optimal training protocols. Secondly, due to the limited number of studies, subgroup analyses based on factors such as age, sex, or playing level could not be performed. These variables are likely to influence the effectiveness of BT, as younger or less experienced players may respond differently compared to seasoned athletes. Thirdly, the heterogeneity in assessment tools and outcome measures used in the included studies hindered direct comparisons. Although many studies reported significant improvements, the diverse tests used to assess balance, power, and basketball performance may restrict the generalizability of the findings.

Conclusion

This review highlights the role of BT in improving balance, agility, stability, and basketball-specific skills. While several studies demonstrated positive effects, some assessments, such as the balance error scoring system, triple hop distance, and 30-second maximal performance jump test, did not show significant improvements. The variability in training protocols across studies, particularly in intensity, duration, and total training volume, makes it challenging to establish an optimal BT program for basketball players. Therefore, due to the lack of direct comparisons, further research is needed to determine the optimal BT parameters, including the appropriate balance between intensity and volume. Additionally, potential differences in BT responses between genders, playing levels, and age groups remain underexplored. Future studies should systematically investigate these variables to establish evidence-based recommendations for BT in basketball players. Overall, BT presents a promising strategy for enhancing performance-related attributes, but more rigorously controlled studies are required to refine training guidelines and maximize its effectiveness in basketball-specific contexts.

Implications

This systematic review provides both theoretical and practical implications for balance training (BT) in basketball. Theoretically, it contributes to the growing body of research by highlighting BT’s role in improving balance, agility, stability, and skill-related performance while identifying gaps in training protocols, particularly in duration, frequency, and intensity. The inconsistent findings in certain performance tests suggest the need for further research on BT’s impact on power and its effectiveness across different ages, genders, and playing levels. Practically, BT should be integrated into basketball training programs to enhance movement efficiency, injury prevention, and game performance. Sport-specific BT exercises, such as balance-enhanced dribbling and single-leg stance shooting, can help bridge the gap between balance improvements and basketball skill execution. Future research should focus on establishing optimal BT parameters and tailoring interventions to different player levels to maximize its benefits.

Data availability

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Dr. Zubaidah Ibrahim for the assistance with the searching strategy.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Physical Education, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China

    Zhaoran Wang

  2. Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Chengfei Hospital, Chengdu, China

    Nanting Chen

  3. School of Physical Education, Xihua University, Chengdu, China

    Shudian Cao

  4. Faculty of Physical Education, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, China

    Lei Gao

  5. Faculty of Educational Studies, University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia

    Soh Kim Geok

  6. Department of Physical Education, Yuncheng University, Yuncheng, China

    Jia Liu

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  1. Zhaoran Wang
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Contributions

S.C. and S.K.G. conducted the literature search and study selection. S.C. initially screened titles and abstracts, followed by a thorough independent review of potentially eligible studies by both L.G. and J.L. Any disagreements regarding study inclusion were resolved through arbitration by J.L. N.C. carried out the study quality assessment. Z.W. and S.C. wrote the main manuscript text. All authors contributed to the manuscript’s revision and have read and approved the final published version.

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Correspondence to Nanting Chen.

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Wang, Z., Chen, N., Cao, S. et al. The effects of balance training on physical fitness and skill-related performance in basketball players: a systematic review. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil 17, 108 (2025). https://doiorg.publicaciones.saludcastillayleon.es/10.1186/s13102-025-01164-9

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BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation

ISSN: 2052-1847

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